10. Magical literature
The collection of some 800 magical manuscripts covers all continents spanning over 4,500 years. The oldest of these, from 26th c. BC from North Syria, has nine incantations by the first named author in history, Ur-Gibil, who was also a scribe, and wrote the text himself and signed it as well. This makes the present manuscript one of the first, if not the first, signed literary autograph.
The main part of the magical collection consists of 654 Jewish-Aramaic incantation bowls and jugs from the Near East, dated between 5th and 7th c. AD. The majority of the bowls have incantations against demons written inside in Aramaic, with no less than about 200 quotes from the Bible in Hebrew. Of these, over 90 are not present on the Dead Sea Scrolls, which makes them the earliest witnesses to the original text of the Old Testament.
The bowls are not only part of our common heritage and that of the Sassanian Empire but, more specifically, of the Jewish people. These quotations are also the only witnesses from the crucial Masoretic foundation period of the Hebrew Bible. The bowls also have the earliest examples of Hechalot or Jewish mystical texts, as well as part of the Shema prayer or extracts from the Mishna. We also find named Jewish rabbis and demons as well as information about Jewish legal practice.
Even if most of the scribes of the bowls were Jews, most of the client names are Persian, since greater Mesopotamia was part of the huge Sassanian Empire. Most of the more than 2,000 incantation bowls known come from the core areas of the Empire, Iran and foremost present Iraq, including parts of Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and Turkey. But an incantation bowl has even been found in Egypt, which was part of the Empire in the years 616-628, and an inscribed jug was found in Uzbekistan on the Empire’s Eastern frontier, attesting to the vast geographical extent of both the Sassanian Empire and the incantation texts.
Over two-thirds of all discovered incantation bowls have an unknown original provenance, as they are usually surface finds, rather than artefacts found in a particular strata or location of an archaeological dig. The reason is that they were placed with the bottom up to trap the demons at the corners of rooms or under thresholds in the houses, or at the entrances of the tents. The usual number found at a house or tent site ranges from a single bowl to a very few only.
Therefore the largest collections today have all been built over a long time. Iraq Museum’s holding of about 650 bowls have been collected over 65 years; the 142 bowls in the British Museum, over 150 years; and the Schøyen Collection’s 654 over more than 55 years by two generations of the Rihani family in Irbid and Amman in Jordan.
Since 1995 Professor Shaul Shaked at the Hebrew University, the world’s foremost authority on incantation bowls, has taken on the Herculanean task of publishing the bowls in the Schøyen Collection. So far only about 220 (10%) of all known incantation bowls known have been published; the 142 bowls in British Museum took over 30 years to see publication.
The Schøyen Collection’s 654 incantation bowls have been housed at University College London for the convenience of Professor Shaked, and the bowls have now been returned. More information can be found in statements on our NEWS page.
10.1. Sumerian magical literature
10.2. Babylonian magical literature
10.3. Assyrian magical literature
10.4. Greek magical literature
- See MS 1700, Greece, 5th c. BC
10.5. Roman magical literature
- MS 1720/2, England, ca. 150-300
10.6. Medieval magical literature
10.7. Asian, African and American magical literature
- See also MS 2960, Ecuador, 3500-1500 BC
- See also MS 2103/1, China, 14th-12th c. BC
- See also MS 1911/1, the Near East, 5th-7th c.
- See also MS 1911/2 , the Near East, 5th-7th c.
- See also MS 1928/19, Persia, 5th-7th c.
- See also MS 1928/54, the Near East, 5th-7th c.
- MS 2053/196, the Near East, 5th-7th c.
- MS 2053/198, the Near East, 5th-7th c.
- MS 2056/12, Persia, 5th-7th c.
- MS 2978 Tibet, 18th c.
- MS 2480 Indonesia, 19th c.
- MS 1960 Ethiopia, 19th c.
10.8. Australian magical literature and rituals
- MS 5085 Australia, 20 000-3000 BC
- MS 5087/37 Australia, 20 000-3000 BC
10.1. Sumerian magical literature
WHAT AM I TO DO (FOR MY CHILD WITH 6 TOES)
MS in Sumerian on clay, Sumer, 26th c. BC, 1 votive child foot with 6 toes, 12,2x6,1x5,4 cm, 1 compartment of cuneiform script.
Commentary: This votive object is of primary importance in the history of medicine and magic, being the earliest known object in a tradition that continues to this day. Having a supernumerary toe was seen to be a blessing on one foot, but a curse on the other. The earliest representation of humans, the plaster figures from Jordan have 6 toes, as had all the brothers of Goliath.
NINE INCANTATIONS GIVEN IN THE NAME OF THE GODDESS NIN-GIRIMMA, ONE CONCERNING SICK INNER PARTS, AND THE RITE: HE POURED OUT FOR ME WATER OF THE TIGRIS AND EUPHRATES; WITH COLOPHON: A RECITATION OF UR-GIBIL, SCRIBE WITH 4 HIGH PRIESTLY TITLES
MS in Sumerian on clay, Ebla?,North Syria, 26th c. BC, 1 tablet, 14x16x3 cm, 6+5 columns, 74+41 compartments of cuneiform script, by the scribe Ur-Gibil, with a decorative line of small KASKAL-signs preceding each spell on reverse.
Context: There are 4 similar tablets from Fara, 1 tablet from Lagash, and 12 tablets from Ebla, all except 1 are small and broken. None of these overlap the present tablet, which makes it the major tablet of the genre. It might be related to MS 4550 with a similar text; cf. MS 3280, Snake incantations, and MS 4549/2 by the same scribe.
Commentary: The text is attributed to a named author, which is unique and without precedent apart from a very small tablet of the snake incantations from the same period, with a recitation of Ur-Bilgi, MS 4549/2. There is no other case of an author or authority being named like this at the end of a Sumerian incantation. The sign for "Recitation" is Sumerian "shid", which corresponds to Akkadian "manu", "to recite". The use of the term in such a context is likewise without parallel. This is from the oldest literature with a named author, who also identifies him as a scribe, implying he wrote it himself, which makes this one of the first literary autographs.
10.2. Babylonian magical literature
OMENS: ISBU - NEW BORN BABIES WITH DEFORMITIES; 69 OMENS
MS in Old Babylonian on clay, Larsa or Ur, Babylonia, ca. 1800 BC, 1 tablet, 17,1x11,8x3,0 cm, single column, 92 lines in cuneiform script.
Binding: Barking, Essex, 2000, blue cloth gilt folding case by Aquarius.
Commentary: The total number, 69, of this collection of medical omens is given at the end of the tablet. This text is only known from the ca. 1000 years later Neo Babylonian versions. Omens was collections of observations made over hundreds of years, concerning the stars, the appearance of the liver of a sacrificial sheep, movement of birds, abnormal births, etc. The individual omens ran into many thousands collected in carefully ordered tablets that reached over one hundred. The texts were consulted in the library before important decisions should be taken by a king or a military commander, or in everyday's life. This type of divination first spread to Syria and Palestine, where liver models of clay to aid in this science have been excavated at Hazor. It eventually passed to the Etruscans, and so became known to the Romans.
LAMASHTU DAUGHTER OF ANU, HER FIRST NAME IS THAT, THE SECOND IS: SISTER OF THE GODS OF THE STREETS, THE THIRD IS: DAGGER WHICH SMASHES THE HEAD, ETC. UNTIL, THE SEVENTH IS: BE EXORCISED BY THE GREAT GODS
MS in Babylonian on red jasper, Babylonia, 1000-600 BC, 1 plaque, 6,2x4,7x1,2 cm, single column, 10 lines of monumental cuneiform script, 5 illustrations, the main illustration showing the female demon Lamashtu standing on the back of a horse, suckling a piglet and a whelp and with a snake in each hand, with a loop handle.
Commentary: This monster demon was well known in the Ancient Near East for killing or removing new-born babies, slipping unnoticed into the house at their most vulnerable period. She was the daughter of Anu, the head of the Mesopotamian pantheon. Some amulets were designed to be worn by the mother, like the present one, others by the baby, and the biggest examples to be hung on the bed, or on the wall.
A long ritual was used to combat her. A likeness of Lamashtu was placed in
a little boat together with items of female apparel and offerings to distract
her attention. The model boat was then placed in the swift-flowing Tigris
River, and she was borne away to the Underworld, leaving mankind in peace.
As a deterrent mothers often wore a bronze head of the god Pazuzu to
protect them and force Lamashtu back to the underworld.
10.3. Assyrian magical literature
SPELL TO DRIVE AWAY ILLNESS AND AID SLEEP FOR A NAMED WOMAN, ACCORDING TO A MAGICAL RITUAL
MS in Neo Assyrian on clay, Assyria, 8th c. BC, 1 cylinder seal formed amulet, diam. 1,0x2,0 cm, 8 lines in cuneiform script, a hole through the centre for suspension.
Commentary: The magical ritual is according to a tablet discovered in British Museum around 1995. Apart from MSS 3271/1-2, there is only 7 other amulets known, all in British Museum.
See also MS 2447, Incantation, Assyria, 900-600 BC
10.4. Greek magical literature
See MS 1700, Curses, Greece, 5th c. BC
10.5. Roman magical literature
CURSES, POSSIBLY RELATED TO THE TEMPLE OF MERCURY
MS in Latin on lead, Tarlton, Gloucestershire, England, ca. 150-300, 1 tablet, 3,9x8,0 cm, 3 lines in Old Roman Cursive.
Context: Of the 8 curse tablets MS 1720/1-6 were found together near Tarlton. Many of the tablets found at Bath, very close to Tarlton, are written in the same style, but the "M" and the "R" are unusual in this tablet. This is the 3rd largest hoard of curse tablets found in England, next to the Bath and Uley hoards.
Provenance: 1. Tarlton hoard, Gloucestershire; 2. Nicholas Wright, London (-1993); 3. Jeremy Griffiths, Oxford.
Commentary: There are several interesting dialect spellings, possibly reflecting features of the version of Latin written and spoken by the British tribe of the Dobunni. The ORC and LRC form the basis for the later National scripts in Europe, and examples are not recorded in any other known private MS collections, apart from MSS 1706/1-2, 1720/1-7.
10.6. Medieval magical literature
See MS 1817, Spell for recovery, Luxembourg, 2nd half 8th c.
See MS 1697, Runic incantation formula, Denmark, 10th c.
10.7. Asian, African and American magical literature
See also MS 2960, Divinatory manual or star chart, Ecuador, 3500-1500 BC
See also MS 2103/1, Oracle bone, China, 14th-12th c. BC
See also MS 1911/1, the Near East, 5th-7th c.
See also MS 1911/2, the Near East, 5th-7th c.
See also MS 1928/19, Persia, 5th-7th c.
See also MS 1928/54, the Near East, 5th-7th c.
| 1. | BIBLE: NUMBERS 9:23 |
| 2. | BIBLE: ZECHARIAH 3:2 |
| 3. | BIBLE: PSALMS 55:8; 91:7-8 |
| 4. | INCANTATIONS: |
| TIGERS ARE PLACED UPRIGHT ON MY HEAD, AND MALICIOUS PEBBLE-STONES ARE PLACED ON MY CHEST, AND AT THEIR KNEES ARE SEALED HEAVEN AND EARTH, FIRE, WATER, MOON, STARS, ZODIAK SIGNS, SPARKS, AIR, DEMONS, DEVS, ACCIDENTS, NO-GOOD-ONES, SATANS, DANAHISH, MALE IDOLS AND FEMALE GODDESSES. | |
| AGAIN, I SEAL AND DOUBLE-SEAL, I, DUKHTANSHAH DAUGHTER OF GUSHNOI, BY THESE THREE MAGICAL WORDS WITH WHICH THEY SPEAK AND LISTEN, FOR THE GREAT HAMMER OF SPLENDOUR AND THE GREAT AXE OF THE BEGINNING AND SCOURGE OF 360 PURE PEBBLE-SPIRITS. AMEN, AMEN, SELAH.- |
MS in Hebrew (texts 1-3) and Jewish-Aramaic (text 4) on clay, Near East, 5th-6th c., 1 incantation bowl, 10, 5x27,0 cm, 14 lines in Jewish-Aramaic script, indented rim.
Context: Numbers 9:23 are on MSS 2053/41, 2053/126, 2053/139, 2053/190 and 2053/196. Zechariah 3:2 is cited on MSS 1927/10, 1927/18, 1927/41, 1927/64, 1928/14, 2053/01, 2053/07, 2053/13, 2053/14, 2053/24, 2053/38, 2053/52, 2053/56, 2053/66, 2053/70, 2053/80, 2053/92, 2053/116, 2053/156, 2053/158, 2053/168, 2053/176, 2053/182, 2053/195, 2053/196, 2053/218, 2053/223, 2053/230, 2053/238, 2053/243, 2053/246 and 2053/262. Psalms 55:8 is cited on MSS 1927/37, 2053/70 and 2053/196. Psalms 91:7-8 are cited on MSS 1927/37, 2053/196 and 2053/275.
Commentary: Text 1, Numbers 9:23, is not extant in the Dead Sea Scrolls, and is the oldest surviving witness in the original language of the Hebrew Bible.
Text 2, Zechariah 3:2 is on the Dead Sea Scroll, 8HevXIIgr, frg. 7, from Nahal Hever, the "Cave of Horror", which however, is not in Hebrew, but the Greek Septuagint translation. The present text thus is the oldest surviving witness in the original language of the Hebrew Bible.
Text 3, Psalms 91:7-8, quoting the Hebrew Bible is among the earliest known, only preceeded by the Dead Sea Scrolls, 11QPsApA and 4QPsB, in Hebrew.
Publication: The partial quote of text 4 is preliminary and by permission of Prof. Shaul Shaked, who will publish the present incantation bowl in the series Manuscripts in The Schøyen Collection.
INCANTATIONS: SUPRESSED ARE ALL DEMONS, ALL NO-GOOD-ONES, ALL PEBBLE-SPIRITS, AND LILITHS, AND MEVAKKALTAS, AND IDOLS AND GODDESSES, AND BARREN ONES, AND PREGNANT ONES. THIS IS THE SURPRESSION BY WHICH HEAVEN AND EARTH IS SURPRESSED. YOU ARE ALL SURPRESSED BY YOUR NAMES, WHETHER THEIR NAMES ARE MENTIONED OR ARE NOT MENTIONED. - ALL THOSE WHO DWELL WITHIN HIS HOUSE AND RESIDE OVER THEIR TRESHOLD - AND WHO KILL AND HARM AND APPEAR IN HATEFUL SHAPES WHICH ARE NOT GOOD.
ON SUNDAY, IN THE MONTH OF AB, I SALUK SON OF HORMIZDUKH, PERFORMED A MAGIC ACT BY THE NAME OF ME, MESHALLAH SON OF MESHALLAH. IT IS BURIED IN THE TRESHOLD OF THE HOUSE OF SALUK SON OF HORMIZDUKH, IT IS BURIED BY MY HAND, AND I SEAL IT AGAINST YOU - THIS IS THE SEAL THAT IS NOT BROKEN, WITH WHICH ARE SEALED HEAVEN AND EARTH.
MS in Jewish-Aramaic on clay, Near East, 5th-6th c., 1 incantation bowl, 13,0x26,2 cm, 12 lines in Jewish-Aramaic script, drawing of standing demon at center and with 2 snakes eating each others tails along the rim, and 2 pairs of bound demons outside.
Exhibited: University College London, Centre for Jewish studies, and the Warburg Institute: Babylonian Aramaic Magic Bowls from the Schøyen Collection, A Special exhibition on the occation of the workshop "Officina Magica", London 15 - 17 1999.
Publication: The partial quote of the text is preliminary and by permission of Prof. Shaul Shaked, who will publish the present incantation bowl in the series Manuscripts in The Schøyen Collection.
See also MS 2056/12, Persia, 5th-7th c.
ASTROLOGERS MANUAL
| 1. | NATURE OF SACRED SITES AND THE QUALITIES OF SITES FOR THE DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD; COMPARING A NUMBER OF THESE AND THE TYPES OF SPIRITS LIKELY TO DWELL IN SUCH PLACES |
| 2. | A PANEL OF 72 AUGURIES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE TO BE NOTED AT THE TIME OF THE BIRTH, AND A COLUMN OF 16 PHASES OF THE MOON WITH ANIMAL HEADS AND A PATTERN OF CROSS HATCHING BENEATH 3 PAIRS OF TREES |
| 3. | A PANEL CONSTITUTING THE HEART OF ASTROLOGICAL LORE IN THE FORM OF THE "COSMIC TORTOISE", UPON THE BELLY OF WHICH IS INSCRIBED THE MAGIC SQUARE OF NINE NUMBERS. IMMEDIATELY SURROUNDED BY 8 TRIGRAMS, FAMILIAR FROM CHINESE SYSTEMS OF DIVINATION |
| 4. | A PANEL TELLING OF THE AFFINITIES AND ANTAGONISMS BETWEEN THE VARIOUS ELEMENTS AND ANIMALS OF THE CYCLE OF TIME. THE 5 ELEMENTS, WOOD FIRE, EARTH, METAL AND WATER, MAY COMBINE IN EITHER HARMONIOUS OR DESTRUCTIVE FASHION, DEPENDING UPON THEIR NATURAL RELATIONSHIPS WITH EACH OTHER AND THE 12 ANIMALS LIKEWISE |
| 5. | A PANEL GIVING DETAILS CONCERNING THE NATURE OF 8 TRIGRAMS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH ONE ANOTHER, AND A SET OF 9 OMENS, BOTH GOOD AND BAD, CONNECTED WITH THE CENTRE AND 8 DIRECTIONS OF SPACE |
| 6. | THE 5 ASPECTS OF HUMAN VITALITY, AND THE 28 CONSTELLATIONS WHICH COMPRISE THE HOUSES OF THE MOON |
| 7. | A SERIES OF DRAWINGS DEPICTING VARIOUS OMENS OF BENEFIT AND HARM |
| 8. | THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE 8 TRIGRAMS AND THE 12 ANIMALS DESCRIBED IN DETAIL, FOLLOWED BY AN ANALYSIS OF ANIMAL RELATIONSHIPS AS THE DAILY PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS INTERACTS WITH THE ANIMAL OF THE YEAR |
| 9. | SECTION OF DEMONOLOGY AND THE PRESCRIPTIONS FOR WARDING OFF OR CURING THEIR BALEFUL INFLUENCES |
| 10. | CHART GIVING SPECIFIC DETAILS OF ONE PARTICULAR CYCLE OF THE 12 ANIMALS. SUCH COMBINATIONS RECURS ONLY ONCE IN EVERY 60 YEARS |
MS in Tibetan on cloth, Tibet, 18th c., 1 roll, 47x380+30 cm, 49+13 columns, (47x380 cm), up to 69 lines in Tibetan dbu can script, diagrams, ca. 500 drawings and illustrations in full colours.
Provenance: 1. Sam Fogg Rare Books Ltd., London. Commentary: An astrologer's mnemonic textbook in the form of an illustrated roll.
PUSTAHA, DIVINATION BOOK, INCLUDING PODA NI RAMBU SIPORHAS; ON DIVINATION WITH A DOUBLE STRING, MENTIONING DATU GUSAR NI AJI
MS in Toba-Batak on bast, Sumatra, Indonesia, 19th c., 58 ff., folding book, 17x24 cm, single column (15x23 cm), 16-20 lines in Batak script, ca 75 large, complex, finely-drawn figures in black ink coloured red.
Binding: Sumatra, Indonesia, 19th c., carved wooden covers.
Context: The wooden covers are of the same style as those of MS Chester Beatty 1115, but more detailed.
Provenance: 1. Sam Fogg cat. 19(1998):151.
Commentary: The name Datu Gusar ni aji is often found in chains of transmission of rambu siporhas texts. This MS is a fine and early specimen of Batak art.
- BIBLE: JOHN 1:1 - 4
- MAGICAL NAMES GIVEN TO SOLOMON
- HOW OLM EXPELLED THE DEMONS
- PRAYER FOR LOOSING SPELLS
- PRAYER WITH ASMAT (MAGICAL NAMES)
MS in Ge'ez on vellum, Tigray, Ethiopia, 19th c., 1 roll of 3 membranes (complete), 209x16 cm, 2 columns, (ca. 205x15 cm) in a bold Ethiopic Ge'ez book script, coloured borders containing protective eye motifs along both edges in full length of roll, doubled between columns, ornamental headpieces (harägs) in both ends, large bold miniature, 31x16 cm, of a guardian spirit with large eyes in orans posture, another, 13x8 cm, of Archangel Michael with drawn sword, a third, 18x16 cm, of an angel striking with a sword a demon that has captured a person, all in colours by the Tigray Master.
Context: Another MS by the Tigray master is MS 2849.
Provenance: 1. Walda Adhana, Tigray, Ethiopia (19th c. -); 2. Sam Fogg Collection, London, B31.
10.8. Australian magical literature and rituals
CYLCON (YURDA), A MAGICO-RELIGIOUS TALLY WITH MARKS POSSIBLY RECORDING THE NUMBER OF YOUNG MEN TO PASS THE INITIATION RITUALS TO MANHOOD OF THE "BORA", FURTHER POSSIBLY REPRESENTING THE POINTING OF THE "DEATH-POINTER-BONE", MAGIC CAPABLE OF CAUSING DEATH TO ANYONE DIVULGING THE TRIBE'S SECRET RITUALS
MS on weathered desert sandstone, Bulloo Downs, South West Queensland, Australia, ca. 20000-3000 BC, 1 cylindrical cylcon, 26x7x6 cm, deeply incised with 5 parallel longitudinal lines intersected by 4+2 semi-circular lateral lines, 2 arrows pointing towards apex, 1 arrow pointing towards base.
Provenance: 1. Found in Bulloo Downs, South West Queensland, Australia (ca. 1947); 2. Shearing Contractor Peter Manoel, New South Wales, Australia (1947-1973); 3. H. Gallasch Museum, Australia (1973-); 4. Sam Fogg Rare Books Ltd., London.
Commentary: Cylcons are earlier than churingas. There is no certain
ways to date individual cylcons. The oldest cylcon/message stone found in a
dateable archaeological context is about 20,000 years old. The simple line
motifs of the oldest cylcons represent the earliest art of the Aborigines,
from a very early period of occupation. In Australian nomenclature this is the
colonizing period, or early Stone Age, ca. 50,000/40,000-3,000 BC.
With
the earliest rock-carvings and -paintings, the cylcons represent the oldest
form of communication and art; and they represent the oldest religion still
observed. Only 2 Aborigines have been able to communicate their name of the
cylcons: Yurda, and Wommagnaragnara (Heart of the snake), respectively. Other
uses as tallies are possible, such as counting of dead people, warriors, emus,
measures of nardo seeds, or mapping purposes counting day-marches in various
directions. Later the use could also change to other magic rituals, some
involving the chipping off smaller flakes, and the practical use for pounding
and crushing. Much more research is needed before the cylcons' real age and
significance can be properly understood and appreciated. The term cylcon is
derived from the title of R. Ethridge's publication: The Cylindro-conical and
Stone Implements of Western New South Wales and their significance.
Ethnological Series No. 2, Memoirs of the Geological Survey of New South
Wales, 1916:1-41.
CYLCON (YURDA), A MAGICO-RELIGIOUS TALLY WITH MARKS POSSIBLY RECORDING THE NUMBER OF YOUNG MEN TO PASS THE INITIATION RITUALS TO MANHOOD OF THE "BORA", FURTHER POSSIBLY REPRESENTING THE POINTING OF THE "DEATH-POINTER-BONE", MAGIC CAPABLE OF CAUSING DEATH TO ANYONE DIVULGING THE TRIBE'S SECRET RITUALS
MS on chalk-like stone, New South Wales, Australia, ca. 20000-3000 BC, upper half of oval-conical and cornute form cylcon, 12x6x6 cm, 2 deep incisions around circumference, under which 10 deep marks, 4 deep marks forming a cross on apex, light longitudinal scratch-type markings.
Provenance: 1. Found in New South Wales, Australia; 2. H. Gallasch Museum, Australia (1973-); 3. Sam Fogg Rare Books Ltd.
Commentary: Cylcons are earlier than churingas. There is no certain ways to date individual cylcons. The oldest cylcon/message stone found in a dateable archaeological context is about 20,000 years old. The simple line motifs of the oldest cylcons represent the earliest art of the Aborigines, from a very early period of occupation. In Australian nomenclature this is the colonizing period, or early Stone Age, ca. 50,000/40,000-3,000 BC. With the earliest rock-carvings and -paintings, the cylcons represent the oldest form of communication and art; and they represent the oldest religion still observed. Only 2 Aborigines have been able to communicate their name of the cylcons: Yurda, and Wommagnaragnara (Heart of the snake), respectively. Other uses as tallies are possible, such as counting of dead people, warriors, emus, measures of nardo seeds, or mapping purposes counting day-marches in various directions. Later the use could also change to other magic rituals, some involving the chipping off smaller flakes, and the practical use for pounding and crushing. Much more research is needed before the cylcons' real age and significance can be properly understood and appreciated. The term cylcon is derived from the title of R. Ethridge's publication: The Cylindro-conical and Stone Implements of Western New South Wales and their significance. Ethnological Series No. 2, Memoirs of the Geological Survey of New South Wales, 1916:1-41.